Assessment Of Meeting 14

   

SUMMARY (ASSESSING READING,WRAITING)

HLM : 185-218

ASSESSING READING

In foreign language lear~g, reading is likewise a skilL th;t,t teachers simply expect learners to acquire. Basic, beginning-level textbooks in a foreign language presuppose a student'S reading ability ifonly because it's a book that is the medium. Reading, arguably . the most essential skill for success in all educational contexts, remaiiis a skill ofP?ramount importance as we create assessments of general language ability.

 Strategic pathways to full understanding are often.important factors to include in assessing learners, especially in the case of most classroom assessments that are formative in nature. An inability to comprehend may thus be traced to a need to enhance a test-taker's strategies for achieving ultimate comprehension For example, an academic technical report, may be comprehensible to a student at the sentence level, but if the learner has nOt exercised certain strategies for noting  the discourse conventions of that genre, misunderstanding may occur.

TYPES{GENRES};'OF~ READING

Each type or genre of written text has its own set of governing rules and conventions. A reader must be able to anticipate those conventions in order to process meaning efficiently. With an extraordinary number of genres present in any literate culture, the· reader's ability to process texts must be very sophisticated.

1   

1.        Academic reading
2.        Job-related reading
3.       Personal reading

MICROSKTIJS, MACROSKILlS, AND STRATEGIES FOR READING

The micro- and macroskills below represent the spectrum of possibilities for objectives

in the assessment of reading comprehension.

1. Discriminate among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns  of English.
2. Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
3. Process writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose
4.  Recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their sign ificance.
5. Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g,tense, agreement,pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
6. Recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms
7.  Recognize cohesive devices in written discourse ahd their role in signaling the    realitionship between and among clauses .
8. Recognize the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance   for interpretation.
9. Recognize the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and purpose. 
10.  Infercontext that is not explicit by using background knowledge.
11.  From described events, ideas, etc., infer links and connections between events, deduce causes and effects, and detect such relations as mai n idea,supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exempl ification.
12.  Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
13.  Detect culturally specific references and interpret them in a context of the appropriate cultural schemata.
14.  Develop and use a battery of reading strategies, such as scanning and skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words .

TYPES OF READING

1.      Perceptive. In keeping with the set of categories specified for listening comprehension, similar ~pecificat.ions are offered here; except with some differing terminology to capture the uniqueness of reading.

2.      Selective. This category is largely an artifact of assessment formats. In order

to ascertain one's reading recognition of lexical, grammatical, or discourse features

of language within a very short stretch of language, c'ertain typical tasks are used picture-cued tasks, matching, true/false, multiple-choice, etc. Stimuli include sentences, brief paragraphs, and simple charts and graphs

3.      Interactive. Included among interactive reading types are stretches of language of several paragraphs to one page or more in which the reader must, in a psycholinguistic sense, interact with the text. That is, reading is a process of negotiating

meaning; the reader brings to the text a set of schemata for understanding it, and intake is the product of that interaction.

4.      Extensive. Extensive reading, as discussed in this book, applies to texts of

more than a page, up to an<:t including professional articles, essays, technical reports, short stories, and books. (It should be noted that reading research commonly

refers to "extensive reading" as longer stretches of discourSe, such as iong articles

and books that are usually read outside :t classroom hour.

DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: PERCEPTIVE READING

Perception is often referred to as a literacy assignment, implying that the student entered  the initial stage becomes "literate".  Some students are already literate themselves native language, but in other cases the second language might be the first language  that they had learned to read.

·        

•      Reading Aloud

The test-taker sees separate letters, words, and/or short sentences and reads them

aloud, one by one, in the presence of an administrator. Since the assessment is of

reading comprehension, any recognizable oral approximation of the target

response is considered correct. 

•       Written Response

·                     Th~ same stimuli are presented, and the test-taker's task is' to reproduce the probe

in writing. Because of the transfer across different skills here, evaluation of the testtaker's response must be carefully treated.

Multiple-Choice

Multiple-choice responses are not only a matter of choosing one of four or five possible answers. Other formats, some of which are especially useful at the low levels

ofreading, include same/different, circle the answer, true/false, choose the letter, and

matching. Here are s011?-e possibilities.

DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: SE~CTIVE READING

Just above the rudimentary skill level of perception of letters and words is a category in which the test designer focuses on formal ~pects oflanguage (lexical, grammatical, and a few discourse features). This category includes what many incorrectly think of as testing "vocabulary and grammar."

•          Multiple-Choice

 (for Form-Focused Criteria)

By far the most popular method of testing a reading knowledge of vocabulary and grammar is the multiple choice format, mainly for reason of particaly it is easy to administer and can be scored quikly.

·       

•        Gap-Filling Tasks

Many of the multiple-choice tasks described above can be converted into gap-filling, or "fill-in-the-blank,"'items in which the test-taker's response is to write a word or phrase. An extension of simple gap-fIlling tasks is to create sentence completion items where test-takers read part of a sentence and then complete it by writing a phrase.

·    

•           Cloze Tasks

 One of the mOst popular types of reading assessment task is the cloze procedure. The word cloie was coined by educational psychologists to capture the Gestalt psychological cohcept of "closure," that is, the ability to fill in gaps in an incomplete image (visual; auditory, or cognitive) and supply (from background schemata) " omitted details.of other language abilities. It was argued that the ability to make coherent guesses in cloze gaps also taps into the ability to listen, speak, and write.With the decline of zeal for the search for the ideal integrative test in recent years, cloze testing has returned to a more appropriate status as one of a number of assessment procedures available for te~ting reading ability.Cloze tests are usually a minimum of two paragraphs in length in order to account fof' discourse expectancies.

·       

•          C-test procedure

The test-taker's task is to detect and cross out the "intrusive" words.

Look at the same familiar passage.

·       

•        Cloze-elide procedure

Critics of this procedure (Davies, 1975) claimed that the cloze-elide procedure is actually a test of reading speed and not of proofreading skill, as its proponents /asserted.Tw disadvantages are nevertheless immediately apparent: (1) Neither the words to insert nor the frequency ofinsertion appears to have any rationale. (2) Fast and efficient readers are not adept at detecting the intrusive words.

•          Impromptu Reading Plus Comprehension Questions

If cloze testing is the most-researched procedure for assessing reading, the traditional "Read a passage and answer son1e questions" technique is undoubtedly the oldest and the most common. Virtually every profiCiency test uses the format, and one would rarely consider assessing reading without some component of the assessment involving impromptu reading and responding to questions.

·        

•      Editing (Longer Texts)

Several advantages are gained in the longer format. First, authenticity is increased. The likelihood that students in English classrooms will read connected prose of a page or two is greater than the likelihood of their encountering the contrived format of unconnected sentences. Second, the task simulates proofreading one's own essay, where it is imperativ to find and correct errors. And third, if the test is connected to a specific curriculum (such as placement into one of several writing courses), the test designer. can draw up specifications for a number of grammatical and rhetorical categories that match the content of the courses. Content validity is thereby supported, and along with it the face validity of a task in which students are willing to invest.

•          Scanning

Scanning is a strategy used by all readers to fmd relevant information in a text. Assessment ofscanning is carried out by presenting test-takers with a text (prose or something in a chart or graph format) and requiring rapid identification of relevant bits of information. Possible stimuli include :

 a one- to two-page news article,

an essay,

 a chapter in a textbook,

 a technical report,

 a table or chart depicting some research fmdings,

 a menu, and

 an application form .

Among the variety of scanning objectives (for each of the genres named above), the

test-taker must locate

• a date, name, or place in an article;

• the setting for a narrative or story;

• the principal divisions of a chapter;

• the principal research fmding in a technical report;

• a res1.I,lt reported in a specified cell in a table;

• the cost of an item on a menu; and

• specified data needed to fill out an application.

Scoring of such scanning tasks is amena.ble to specificity ifthe initial directions

are specific ("How much does the dark chocblate torte cost?"). Since one of the purpos<.:!s of scanning is to quickly identify important elements, timing may also be calciliated into a scoring procedure.

• ·         Ordering Tasks

Variations on this can serve :as an assessment of overall global understanding of a story and of the cohesive devices that signal the order of events or ideas.

Information Transfer: Reading Charts, Maps, Graphs, Diagrams

• comprehend specific conventions of the various types of graphics;

• comprehend labels, headings, numbers, and symbols;

• comprehend the possible relationships among elements of the graphic; and

• make inferences that are not presented overtly.

All these tasks involve retrieving information from either written or graphic media

and transferring that information to productive performance.

DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: EXTENSIVE READING

The reason for placing such reading into a separate category is that reading of this type of discourse almost always involves a focus on meaning using mostly top-down processing, with only occasional use of a targeted bottom-up strategy. Also, because of the extent of such reading, formal assessment is unlikely to be contained within the time constraints of a typical formal testing

framework, whi,ch presents a unique challenge for assessment purposes,a few tasks that have proved to be useful in assessing extensive reading, it is essential to note that a number of the tasks described in previous categories can apply here. Among them are:

• impromptu reading plus comprehension questions,
• short-answer tasks,
• editing,
• scanning,
• ordering,
• information transfer, and
• interpretation (discussed under graphics),

•          Skimniing Tasks

Skimming is the process of rapid coverage of reading matter to determine its gis or main idea. It is a prediction strategy used to give a reader a sense of the topic and purpose of a text, the organization of the text, the perspective or point of view of the writer, its ease or difficulty, and/or its usefulness to the reader. Of course skimming can apply to texts of less than one page, so it would be wise not to confine this type of task just to extensive texts. Assessment of skimming strategies is usually straightforward: the test-taker skims a text and answers questions such as the following:

What is the main idea of this text?

What is the author's purpose in writing the text?

What kind of writing is this [newspaper article, manual, novel, etc.]?

What type of writing is this [expository, technical, narrative, etc.]?

How easy or difficult do you think this text·.will be?

What do you think you will learn from the text?

How useful will the text be for your [profession, academic needs, interests]?

• ·         Summarizing and Responding

One of the most common means of assessirtg extensive reading is to ask the testtaker to write a summary of the text.One criterion for a good response here is the extent to which the test-taker accurately reflects the content of the article and some of the argunlents therein. Scoring is also difficult here because of the subjectivity of determining an accurate reflection of the article itself. For the reading component of this task, as well as .the surnmary task described above, a holistic scoring system may be feasible.

• ·         Note-Taking and Outlining

a reader's comprehension of extensive texts may be assessed through an evaluation of a process of note-taldng and/or outlining. Because of the difficulty of controlling the conditions and time frame for both these techniques, they rest firmly in the category of informal assessment.

ASSESSING WRITING

Not many centuries ago, writing was a skill that was the exclusive domain of scribes and scholars in educational or religious institutions. Almost every aspect of everyday life for"common" people was carried out orally. Business transactions, records, legalI documents, political and military vocation it was to render language into the written word.

In the field of second language teaching, only a half-century ago experts were saying that writing was primarily a convention for recording speech and for reinforcing grammatical and lexical features of language.Every educated child in developed countries learns the rudiments of writing in his or her native language, but very few learn to express themselves clearly with logical, well-developed organization that accomplishes an intended purpose.

GENRES OF WRITI'EN LANGUAGE

1.          Academic writing

papers and general subject reports

essays, compositions

academically focused journals

short-answer test responses

technical reports (e.g., lab reports)

theses, dissertations

      2.   Job-related writing

messages (e.g., phone messages)

letters/emails

memos (e.g., interoffice)

reports (e.g., job evaluations, project reports)

schedules, labels, signs

advertisements, announcements manuals

     3.Personal writing

letters, emails, greeting cards, invitations

messages, notes

calendar entries, shopping lists, reminders

financial documents (e.g., checks, tax forms, loan applications)

forms, questionnaires, medical reports, immigration documents

diaries, personal journals fiction (e.g., short stories, poetry).

TYPES OF WRITING PERFORMANCE

1.  Imit.ative. To produce written language, the learner must attain skills in the funqamental, basic tasks of.writing letters, words, punctuation, and very brief sentences. This category includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling system.
2. Intensive (controlled). Beyond the fundamentals of imitative writing are skills in producing appropriate vocabulary within a context, collocations and idioms, and correct grammatical features up to'the length of a: sentence.
3.  Responsive. Here, assessment tasks require learners to perform at a limited discourse level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. Tasks respond to pedagogical directives, lists of criteria, outlines, and other guidelines.
4.  Extensive. Extensive writing implies successful management of all the processes and strategies of writing for all purposes, up to the length of an essay, a term paper, a major research project report, or even a thesis.

·         MICRO- AND MACROSKII.IS OF WRITING

• Microskills

1. Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
2. Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
3. Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order     patterns
4. Use acceptable grammatical systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, and rules.
5. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
6. Use cohesive devices in written discourse.

• Macroskills

1.  Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse.
2. Appropriately accomplish the communicative functions of written texts according to form and purpose.
3.  Convey links and connections between events, and communicate such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
4. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing.
5. Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text.
6. Develop and use a battery of writing strategies, such as accurately assessing the audience's interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases and synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing.

DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: INTENSIVE (CONTROLLED) WRITING

This next level ofwriting is what second language teacher training n1anuals have for decades called controlled writing. It may also be thought of as_ form-focused writing, grammar writing, or simply guided writing. A good deal of writing at this level is display writing as opposed to real writing: students produce language to display their competence in grammar, vocabulary, or sentence formation, and not necessarily to convey meaning for an authentic purpose

•          Dictation and Dicto-Comp.

Dictation is simply the rendition in writing of what one hears aurally, so it could be classified as an imitative type of writing, especially since a proportion of the testtaker's performance centers on correct spelling. Also, because the test-taker must listen to stretches of discourse and in the process insert punctuation, dictation.A form of controlled writing related to dictation is a dicto-comp. Here, a paragraph is read at normal speed, usually two or three times; then the teacher asks students to rewrite the p~ragraph from the best oftheir recollection.

•          Grammatical Transformation Tasks.

To this day, language teachers have also used this technique as an assessment task, ostensibly to measure grammatical competence.Numerous versions of the task are possible:

1.  Change the tenses in a paragraph.
2. Change full forms of verbs to reduced forms (contractions).
3. Change statements to yes/no or wh-questions.
4.  Change questions into statements.
5. Combine two sentences into one using a relative pronoun.
6.  Change direct speech to indirect speech.
7. Change from active to passive voice. 

•          Vocabulary Assessment Tasks.

Most vocabulary study is carried out through reading. A number of assessments of reading recognition of vocabulary were discussed in the previous chapter: multiplechoice techniques, matching, picture-cued identification, cloze techniques, guessing the meaning of a word in context, etc.Vocabulary assessment is clearly form-focused in the above tasks, but the procedures are creatively linked by means of the target word, its collocations, and its morphological variants. At the responsive and extensive levels, where learners are called upon to create coherent paragraphs, performance obviously becomes more authentic, and lexical choice is one of several possible components of the evaluation of extensiVe writing.

DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKSt RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING

In this section we consider both responsive and extensive writing tasks. They will be regarded here as a continuum of possibilities ranging from lower-end tasks whose complexity exceeds those in the previous category of intensive or controlled writing, through more open-ended tasks such as writing short reports, essays, summaries, and responses. up to texts of several pages or more.

•          Paraphrasing.

One of the more difficult concepts for second language learners to grasp is paraphrasing.The initial step in teaching paraphrasing is to ensure that learners understand the importance of. paraphrasing: to say something in one's own words, to avoid plagiarizing, to offer some variety in expression.Scoring of the test-taker's response is a judgment call in which the criterion of conveying the same or similar message is primary, with secondary evaluations of discourse, grammar, and vocabulary. Other components of analytic or holistic scales (see discussion below, page 242) might be considered as criteria for an evaluation. Paraphrasing is more often a part of informal and formative assessment than of formal, summative assessment, and therefore student responses should be viewed as opportunities for teachers ana students to gain positive washback on die art of paraphrasing.

•        Guided Question and Answer

                 Another lower-order task in this type of writing, which has the pedagogical benefit of guiding a learner without dictating the form of the output, is a guided questionand-answer format in which the test administrator poses a series of questions that essentially serve as an outline of the emergent written text.

SCORING METHODS FOR RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING

At responsive and extensive levels of writing, three major approaches to scoring writing performance are commonly used by test designers: holistic, primary trait, and analyticaL In the first method, a single score is assigned to an essay, which represents a reader's general overall assessment. Primary trait scoring is a variation of the holistic method in that the achievement of the primary purpose, or trait, of an essay is the only factor rated.

• ·         Holistic Scoring.

The WE scoring scale above is a prime example of holistic scoring. In Chapter 7, a rubric for scoring oral production holistically was presented. Each point on a holistic scale is given a, systematic set of descriptors, and the reader-evaluator matches an overall impression with the descriptors to arrive at a score.Advantages of holistic scoring include.

• fast evaluation,
• relatively high inter-rater reliability,
•  the fact that scores represent "standards" that are easily interpreted by la persons,
•  the fact that scores tend to emphasize the writer's strengths (Cohen, 1994   p. 315), and
•  applicability to writing across many different disciplines.Its disadvantages must also be weighed into a decision on whether to use holistic scoring:
• One score masks differences across the subskills within each score.
• No diagnostic information is available (no washback potential).
• The scale may not apply equally well to all genres of writing.
• Raters need to be extensively trained to use the scale accurately.

In general, teachers and test designers lean toward holistic scoring only when

it is expedient for administrative purposes.

Analytic Scoring.

For classroom instruction, holistic scoring provides little washback into the writer's further stages of learning. Primary trait scoring focuses on the principal function of the text and therefore offers some feedback potential, but no washback for any of the aspects of the written production that enhance the ultimate accomplishment of the purpose.Classroom evaluation of learning is best served through analytic scoring, in which as many as six major elements of writing are scored, thus enabling learners to home in on weaknesses and to capitalize on strengths.

BEYOND SCORING: RESPONDING TO EXTENSIVE WRITING

Assess,ing Initial Stages of the Process of Composing.Following are some guidelines for assessing the initial stages (the frrst draft or two) of a written composition. These guidelines are generic for self, peer,. and teacher , responding. Each assessor will need to modify the list according to the level of the learner, the context, and the purpose in responding.

1. Focus your efforts primarily on meaning, main idea, and organization.

2.  Comment on the introductory paragraph.

3. Make general comments about the clarity of the main idea and logic or

   appropriateness of the organ ization.

4. As a rule of thumb, ignore minor (local) grammatical and lexical errors.

5. Indicate what appear to be major (global) errors (e.g., by underlining the

    text in question), but allow the writer to make corrections.

6. Do not rewrite··ques-titmable, ungrammatical,or·awkward sentences; rather,

    probe with a question about meaning.

7. Comment on features that appear to be irrelevant to the topic.

      The teacher-assessor's role is; as a guide, a facilitator, and an ally; therefore,

assessment at this stage of writing heeds to be as positive as possible to encourage

the writer. An early focus on overall structur'e and meaning will enable writers to clarify their purpose and plan and will set a framework for the writers' later refmement of the lexical and grammatical issues.

        Assessing Later Stages of the Process of Composing.

Once the writer has determined and clarified his or her purpose and plan, and has

completed at least one or perhaps two drafts, the focus shifts toward "fme tuning"

the expression with a view toward a final reVision. Editing and responding assume

an appropriately different character now, with these guidelines:

1. Comment on the specific clarity and strength of all main ideas and supporti ng ideas, and on argument and logic.
2. Call attention to minor ("Iocal") grammatical and mechanical (spelling, punctuation) errors, but direct the writer to self-correct.
3. Comment on any further word choices and expressions that may not be awkward but are not as clear or direct as they could be.
4.  Point out any problems with cohesive devices within and across paragraphs.
5.  If appropriate, comment on documentation, citation of sources, evidence, and other support.Comment on the adequacy and strength of the conclusion.

Through all these stages it is assumed that peers and teacher are both responding

to the writer through conferencing in person, electronic communication, or, at the

very least, an exchange of papers. All those developmental stages may be the preparation that learners need both to function in creative

real..world writing tasks and to successfully demonstrate their competence on a

timed impromptu test.

This chapter completes the cycle considers the assessment of the four fourth listening skills, speaking, reading, and writing. When using the recommended assessment technique, it can now fully appreciate two significant thorough guidelines to design effective assessment procedures:

1. It is virtually impossible to isolate anyone of the four skills without the involvement of at least one other mode of performance. Don't underestimate the power of the integration ofskills in assessments designed to target a single skill area.
2. The variety of assessment techniques and item types and tasks is virtually infmite in     that there is always some possibility for creating a unique variation. Explore those alternatives, but with some caution lest your overzealous urge to be innovative distract you from a central focus on achieving the intended purpose and renderirig an appropriate evaluation of performance.

EXERCISES

[Note: (I) Individual work; (G) Group or pair work; (C) Whole-class discussion.]

1. (C) Genres of reading were listed at the beginning of Chapter 8, and genres of writing in this chapter, a shorter list. Why is the list for writing shorter? Add other examples to each of the three categories. Among the listed examples and new ones you come up with, be specific in citing what makes some g~nres more difficult than others. Select a few of the more difficult genres and discuss what you would assess (criteria) and how you would assess (some possible assessment techniques) them.
2.  (C) Review the four basic types of writing that were outlined at the beginning of the chapter. Offer examples of each and pay special attention to distinguishing between imitative and intensive, and between responsive and extensive.
3. (G) Look at the list of micro- and macroskills of writing on page 221. In pairs,each assigned to a different skill (or two), brainstorm some tasks that assess those skills. Present your fmdings to the rest of the class.
4.  (C) In Chapter 6, eight characteristics oflistening were listed (page 122) that make listening "difficult." What makes writing difficult? Devise a similar list, which could form a set of specifications to pay special attention· to in assessing writing.
5. (G) Divide the four basic types of writing among groups or pairs, one type for each. Look at the sample assessment techniques provided and evaluate them according to the five principles (practicality, reliability, validity [especially face and content], authenticity, and washback). Present your critique to the rest of the class.
6.  (G) In the same groups as #5 above with the same type of writing, design some other item types, different-from·-the one(s) provided-here, that assess the same type of writing performance.
7.  (IIC) Visit the TOEFL website and click on the description of the Test of Written English to familiarize yourself further with the TWE. Then, do the following: (a) Look at the TWE holistic scoting guide (page 239) and evaluate its rater reliability. (b) Discuss the validity ot a timed impromptu test such as thisfor admission to an English-speaking uniVersity.
8. (C) Review the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of scoring presented in this chapter: holistic, primary trait, and analytic. Construct a chart that shows how different contexts (types of test, objectives of a curriculum, proficiency levels, etc.) may benefit from each kind of scoring.

 FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Weigle, Sara Cushing. (2002). Assessing writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

      This volume in the Cambridge Language Assessment Series provides a comprehensive overview of the history and current state of the art of assessing

writing. With an authoritative backdrop of research underlying the construct

validation of techniques for the assessment of written production, a host of

actual testing techniques are surveyed and evaluated.

Raimes, Ann. (1998). Teaching writing. Annual Review ofApplied Linguistics, 18,

pp.142-167.

      In this survey article, one of the leading researchers in the field of second

language writing pedagogy offers a· description of recent research in

teaching writing with special attentio~ to journal writing, integrating writing

with other skills, peer collaboration, responding to writing, and a note on

the role of technology in . teaching writing. Assessment of writing is

addressed in a pedagogical context.

REFERENCES :

Brown H. Douglas san, 2003,Language assessment principles and classroom practices,Francisco,california.